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Chapter 20
Psychiatric Emergencies
National EMS Education Standard Competencies (1 of 2)
Medicine
Applies fundamental knowledge to provide basic emergency care and transportation based on assessment findings for an acutely ill patient.
National EMS Education Standard Competencies (2 of 2)
Psychiatric
Recognition of:
–	Behaviors that pose a risk to the EMT, patient, or others
–	Basic principles of the mental health system
–	Assessment and management of:
•	Acute psychosis
•	Suicidal/risk
•	Agitated delirium
Introduction
•	EMTs often deal with patients undergoing psychological or behavioral crisis.
•	Crisis might be the result of:
–	Emergency situation
–	Mental illness
–	Mind-altering substances
–	Stress
Myth and Reality (1 of 3)
•	We all develop some symptoms of mental illness at some point in life.
–	Does not mean that everyone develops mental illness
•	Do not jump to conclusions concerning:
–	Yourself
–	Your patient
Myth and Reality (2 of 3)
•	The most common misconception is that if you are feeling “bad” or “depressed,” you must be “sick.”
•	There are many justifiable reasons for feeling depressed, such as:
–	Divorce
–	Loss of a job
–	Death of a relative or friend
Myth and Reality (3 of 3)
•	Many people believe that all individuals with mental health disorders are dangerous, violent, or unmanageable.
–	Only a small percentage fall into this category.
–	You may be exposed to a higher proportion of violent patients.
–	You may be able to predict violence.
Defining a Behavioral Crisis 
(1 of 4)
•	Behavior is what you can see of a person’s response to the environment: his or her actions.
–	Most of the time, people respond to the environment in reasonable ways.
–	There are times when stress is so great that the normal ways do not work.

Defining a Behavioral Crisis 
(2 of 4)
•	A behavioral crisis is any reaction to events that interferes with the activities of daily living or has become unacceptable to the patient, family, or community.
–	If this interruption tends to occur on a regular basis, the behavior is also considered a mental health problem.
Defining a Behavioral Crisis 
(3 of 4)
•	Usually, if an abnormal pattern of behavior lasts for at least a month, it is a matter of concern.
–	Chronic depression is a persistent feeling of sadness and despair.
–	May be a symptom of a mental or physical disorder
Defining a Behavioral Crisis 
(4 of 4)
•	When a psychiatric emergency arises, the patient:
–	May show agitation or violence
–	May become a threat to self or others
The Magnitude of Mental Health Problems (1 of 2)
•	At one time or another, one in five Americans has some type of psychiatric disorder.
–	An illness with psychological or behavioral symptoms that may result in impaired functioning

The Magnitude of Mental Health Problems (2 of 2)
•	The US mental health system provides many levels of assistance.
–	Professional counselors are available for marital conflict and parenting issues.
–	More serious issues are often handled by a psychologist.
–	Severe psychological conditions require a psychiatrist.
Pathology (1 of 4)
•	An EMT is not responsible for diagnosing the underlying cause of a behavioral crisis or psychiatric emergency.
–	You should know the two basic categories of diagnosis a physician will use: organic and functional.
Pathology (2 of 4)
•	Organic
–	Organic brain syndrome is a temporary or permanent dysfunction of the brain caused by a disturbance in the physical or physiologic functioning of the brain tissue.
–	Causes include sudden illness, head trauma, seizures, intoxication, and diseases of the brain
Pathology (3 of 4)
•	Organic (cont’d)
–	Altered mental status can arise from:
•	Low level of blood glucose
•	Lack of oxygen
•	Inadequate blood flow to brain
•	Excessive heat or cold
Pathology (4 of 4)
•	Functional
–	Abnormal operation of an organ that cannot be traced to an obvious change in the organ itself
–	Examples include schizophrenia, anxiety conditions, and depression.
–	There may be a chemical or physical cause, but it is not well understood.
Safe Approach to a Behavioral Crisis (1 of 2)
•	All regular EMT skills are used in a behavioral crisis.
–	However, other management techniques come into play.
Safe Approach to a Behavioral Crisis (2 of 2)
Patient Assessment
•	Scene size-up
•	Primary assessment
•	History taking
•	Secondary assessment
•	Reassessment
Scene Size-up (1 of 2)
•	Scene safety
–	Is the situation unduly dangerous to you and your partner?
–	Do you need immediate law enforcement backup?
–	Does the patient’s behavior seem typical or normal for the circumstances?
–	Are there legal issues involved?
Scene Size-up (2 of 2)
•	Mechanism of injury/nature of illness
–	Determine the MOI and/or NOI.
Primary Assessment (1 of 3)
•	Form a general impression.
–	Begin your assessment from the doorway or from a distance.
–	Perform a rapid scan.
–	Observe the patient closely using the AVPU scale to check for alertness.
–	Establish a rapport with the patient.
Primary Assessment (2 of 3)
•	Airway and breathing
–	Assess the airway to make sure it is patent and adequate.
–	Evaluate the patient’s breathing.
•	Circulation
–	Assess the pulse rate, quality, and rhythm.
–	Obtain the systolic and diastolic BP.
–	Evaluate skin color, temperature, condition.
Primary Assessment (3 of 3)
•	Transport decision
–	Unless your patient is unstable from a medical problem or trauma, prepare to spend time at the scene with him or her.
–	There may be a specific facility to which patients with mental problems are transported.
History Taking (1 of 3)
•	Investigate the chief complaint.
–	Is the patient’s central nervous system functioning properly?
–	Are hallucinogens or alcohol a factor?
–	Are psychogenic circumstances involved?
History Taking (2 of 3)
•	SAMPLE history
–	You may be able to elicit information not available to the hospital staff.
History Taking (3 of 3)
•	SAMPLE history (cont’d)
–	In geriatric patients, consider Alzheimer disease and dementia.
–	Your assessment has two primary goals:
•	Recognizing major life threats
•	Reducing the stress of the situation
–	Use reflective listening.
Secondary Assessment (1 of 4)
•	Physical examinations
–	In an unconscious patient, begin with a full-body scan.
–	Avoid touching the patient without permission.
–	A conscious patient may not respond at all to your questions.
Secondary Assessment (2 of 4)
•	Physical examinations (cont’d)
–	You can tell a lot about a patient’s emotional state from:
•	Facial expressions
•	Pulse rate
•	Respirations
Secondary Assessment (3 of 4)
•	Vital signs
–	Obtain vital signs when doing so will not exacerbate the patient’s emotional distress.
–	Make every effort to assess blood pressure, pulse, respirations, skin, and pupils.
Secondary Assessment (4 of 4)
•	Vital signs (cont’d)
–	Monitoring devices may be used.
–	Assess the patient’s first blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope.
–	A pulse oximetry device can be used to assess the patient’s perfusion status.
Reassessment (1 of 3)
•	Never let your guard down.
–	Many patients will act spontaneously.
•	If restraints are necessary, reassess and document every 5 minutes:
–	Respirations
–	Pulse and motor and sensory function in all restrained extremities

Reassessment (2 of 3)
•	Interventions
–	There is often little you can do during the short time you will be treating the patient.
–	Diffuse and control the situation.
–	Safely transport the patient to the hospital.
–	Intervene only as much as it takes to accomplish these tasks.
Reassessment (3 of 3)
•	Communication and documentation
–	Try to give the receiving hospital advance warning of the psychiatric emergency.
–	Document thoroughly and carefully.
•	Yours may be the only documentation about the patient’s distress.
•	If restraints are used, say what types and why they were used.
Acute Psychosis (1 of 5)
•	Psychosis is a state of delusion in which the person is out of touch with reality.
•	Causes include:
–	Mind-altering substances
–	Intense stress
–	Delusional disorders
–	Schizophrenia
Acute Psychosis (2 of 5)
•	Schizophrenia is a complex disorder that is not easily defined or treated.
–	Typical onset occurs during adulthood.
–	Influences thought to contribute include:
•	Brain damage
•	Genetics
•	Psychological and social influences
Acute Psychosis (3 of 5)
•	Persons with schizophrenia experience symptoms including:
–	Delusions
–	Hallucinations
–	A lack of interest in pleasure
–	Erratic speech
Acute Psychosis (4 of 5)
•	Guidelines for dealing with a psychotic patient:
–	Determine if the situation is dangerous.
–	Identify yourself clearly.
–	Be calm, direct, and straightforward.
–	Maintain an emotional distance.
–	Do not argue.
Acute Psychosis (5 of 5)
•	Guidelines (cont’d)
–	Explain what you would like to do.
–	Involve people the patient trusts, such as family or friends, to gain patient cooperation.
Suicide (1 of 5)
•	Depression is the most significant factor that contributes to suicide.
•	It is a common misconception that people who threaten suicide never commit it.
–	Suicide is a cry for help.
–	Someone is in a crisis that he or she cannot handle alone.
Suicide (2 of 5)
Suicide (3 of 5)
•	Be alert to these warning signs:
–	Does he or she have an air of tearfulness, sadness, deep despair, or hopelessness?
–	Does he or she avoid eye contact, speak slowly, and project a sense of vacancy?
–	Does he or she seem unable to talk about the future?
–	Is there any suggestion of suicide?
–	Does he or she have any plans relating to death?
Suicide (4 of 5)
•	Consider these additional risks:
–	Are there any unsafe objects nearby?
–	Is the environment unsafe?
–	Is there evidence of self-destructive behavior?
–	Is there an imminent threat to the patient or others?
Suicide (5 of 5)
•	Additional risks (cont’d)
–	Is there an underlying medical problem?
–	Are there cultural or religious beliefs promoting suicide?
–	Has there been any trauma?
•	A suicidal patient may be homicidal as well.
Agitated Delirium (1 of 5)
•	Delirium is a condition of impairment in cognitive function that can present with disorientation, hallucinations, or delusions.
•	Agitation is characterized by restless and irregular physical activity.
–	Patients may strike out irrationally.
–	Your personal safety must be considered.
Agitated Delirium (2 of 5)
•	Symptoms may include:
–	Hyperactive irrational behavior
–	Inattentiveness
–	Vivid hallucinations
–	Hypertension
–	Tachycardia
–	Diaphoresis
–	Dilated pupils
Agitated Delirium (3 of 5)
•	Be calm, supportive, and empathetic.
•	Approach the patient slowly and purposefully and respect the patient’s territory.
•	Limit physical contact.
•	Do not leave the patient unattended.
Agitated Delirium (4 of 5)
•	Try to indirectly determine the patient’s:
–	Orientation
–	Memory
–	Concentration
–	Judgment
•	Pay attention to the patient’s ability to communicate, appearance, dress, and personal hygiene.
Agitated Delirium (5 of 5)
•	If you determine the patient requires restraint, make sure you have adequate personnel available to help you.
•	If the patient has overdosed, take all medication bottles or illegal substances to the medical facility.
–	Refrain from using lights and sirens.
Medicolegal Considerations 
(1 of 5)
•	More complicated with patient undergoing behavioral crisis or psychiatric emergency
•	Legal problems are reduced when the patient consents to care.
–	Gaining the patient’s confidence is crucial.
Medicolegal Considerations 
(2 of 5)
•	You must decide whether the patient requires immediate emergency medical care.
–	He or she may resist your attempt to provide care.
–	Never leave the patient alone.
–	Request law enforcement personnel to handle the patient.
Medicolegal Considerations 
(3 of 5)
•	Consent
–	Implied consent is assumed with a patient who is not mentally competent to grant consent.
–	Consent matters are not always clear-cut in psychiatric emergencies.
–	If you are not sure, request the assistance of law enforcement personnel.
Medicolegal Considerations 
(4 of 5)
•	Limited legal authority
–	The EMT has limited legal authority to require a patient to undergo emergency medical care when no life-threatening emergency exists.
–	Competent adults have the right to refuse care.
Medicolegal Considerations 
(5 of 5)
•	In psychiatric cases, a court of law would probably consider your actions in providing lifesaving care to be appropriate.
–	A patient who is in any way impaired may not be considered competent.
–	Err on the side of treatment and transport.
Restraint (1 of 5)
•	If you restrain a person without authority in a nonemergency situation, you expose yourself to a possible lawsuit.
–	Legal actions can involve charges of assault, battery, false imprisonment, and violation of civil rights.
Restraint (2 of 5)
•	You may use restraints only:
–	To protect yourself or others from bodily harm
–	To prevent the patient from causing injury to himself or herself
Restraint (3 of 5)
•	You may use only reasonable force as necessary to control the patient.
•	Always try to transport a disturbed patient without restraints if possible.
•	At least four people should be present to carry out the restraint, each being responsible for one extremity.
Restraint (4 of 5)
•	Level of force will vary, depending on these factors:
–	Degree of force that is necessary to keep the patient from injuring himself, herself, or others
–	Patient’s sex, size, strength, mental status
–	Type of abnormal behavior the patient is exhibiting
Restraint (5 of 5)
•	Secure the patient’s extremities with approved equipment.
•	Treat the patient with dignity and respect.
•	Monitor the patient for:
–	Vomiting
–	Airway obstruction
–	Cardiovascular stability
The Potentially Violent Patient (1 of 5)
•	Violent patients make up only a small percentage of behavioral and psychiatric patients.
–	However, the potential for violence is always an important consideration for you.
The Potentially Violent Patient (2 of 5)
•	History
–	Has the patient previously exhibited hostile, overly aggressive, or violent behavior?
•	Posture
–	How is the patient sitting or standing?
–	Is the patient tense, rigid, or sitting on the edge of his or her seat?
The Potentially Violent Patient (3 of 5)
•	The scene
–	Is the patient holding or near potentially lethal objects?
•	Vocal activity
–	What kind of speech is the patient using?
–	Loud, obscene, erratic, and bizarre speech patterns usually indicate emotional distress.
The Potentially Violent Patient (4 of 5)
•	Physical activity
–	Most telling factor of all
–	A patient requiring careful watching is one who:
•	Has tense muscles, clenched fists, or glaring eyes
•	Is pacing
•	Cannot sit still
•	Is fiercely protecting personal space
The Potentially Violent Patient (5 of 5)
•	Other factors to consider:
–	Poor impulse control
–	A history of truancy, fighting, and uncontrollable temper
–	Tattoos
–	Substance abuse
–	Depression
–	Functional disorder
Summary (1 of 6)
•	A behavioral crisis is any reaction to events that interferes with the activities of daily living or has become unacceptable to the patient, family, or community.

Summary (2 of 6)
•	During a psychiatric emergency, a patient may show agitation or violence or become a threat to himself or herself, or to others.

Summary (3 of 6)
•	Psychiatric disorders have many possible underlying causes including social or situational stress, psychiatric disorders, physical illnesses, chemical problems, or biologic disturbances.
Summary (4 of 6)
•	As an EMT, you are not responsible for diagnosing the underlying cause of a behavioral crisis or psychiatric emergency.
•	The threat of suicide requires immediate intervention. Depression is the most significant risk factor for suicide.
Summary (5 of 6)
•	A patient in mentally unstable condition may resist your attempts to provide care. In such situations, request that law enforcement personnel handle the patient.
•	Violent or dangerous people must be taken into custody by the police before emergency care can be rendered.
Summary (6 of 6)
•	Always consult medical control and contact law enforcement personnel for help before restraining a patient.
•	If restraints are required, use the minimum force necessary. Assess the airway and circulation frequently while the patient is restrained.
•	sical aggression and anger.